PHILOSOPHY

Before we dive into the big questions of philosophy, you need to know how to argue properly. We’ll start with an overview of philosophical reasoning and breakdown of how deductive arguments work (and sometimes don’t work).

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Plato was one of the world's earliest and possibly greatest philosophers. He matters because of his devotion to making humanity more fulfilled. If you like our films, take a look at our shop (we ship worldwide):

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“Athens, 2400 years ago. It’s a compact place: around 250,000 people live here. There are fine baths, theatres, temples, shopping arcades and gymnasiums. Art is flourishing, and science too. You can pick up excellent fish down at the harbour in Piraeus. It’s warm for more than half the year....”

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In this video, Marc Lange (UNC-Chapel Hill) introduces the paradox of confirmation, one that arises from instance confirmation, the equivalence condition, and common inference rules of logic.

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Immanuel Kant was acutely aware of living in an age when philosophy would need to supplant the role once played by religion. This helped him to arrive at his most famous concept: the ‘categorical imperative.’ If you like our films, take a look at our shop (we ship worldwide):

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“Immanuel Kant is a philosopher who tried to work out how human beings could be good and kind – outside of the exhortations and blandishments of traditional religion.
He was born in 1724 in the Baltic city of Königsberg, which at that time was part of Prussia, and now belongs to Russia (renamed Kaliningrad)...”

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Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism.
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After weeks of exploring the existence of nature of god, today Hank explores one of the biggest problems in theism, and possibly the biggest philosophical question humanity faces: why is there evil?

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In which John Green teaches you about conflict in Israel and Palestine. This conflict is often cast as a long-term beef going back thousands of years, and rooted in a clash between religions. Well, that's not quite true. What is true is that the conflict is immensely complicated, and just about everyone in the world has an opinion about it. John is going to try to get the facts across in under 13 minutes.

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Citation 1: Arthur James Balfour, Balfour Declaration (letter to Baron Rothschild, leader of British Jewish community). 1917.

Rene Descartes is perhaps the world’s best known-philosopher, in large part because of his pithy statement, ‘I think therefore I am.’ He stands out as an example of what intellectual self-confidence can bring us. Please subscribe here:
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Twenty four hundred years ago, Plato, one of history’s most famous thinkers, said life is like being chained up in a cave forced to watch shadows flitting across a stone wall. Beyond sounding quite morbid, what exactly did he mean? Alex Gendler unravels Plato's Allegory of the Cave, found in Book VII of The Republic.

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Nietzsche believed that the central task of philosophy was to teach us to 'become who we are'. Find out more by reading our book 'Life Lessons from Nietzsche ’ (we ship worldwide):

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“The challenge begins with how to pronounce his name. The first bit should sound like ‘Knee’, the second like ‘cher’: Knee – cher.
Friedrich Nietzsche was born in 1844 in a quiet village in the eastern part of Germany, where – for generations – his forefathers had been pastors. He did exceptionally well at school and university; and so excelled at ancient Greek (a very prestigious subject, at the time) that he was made a professor at the University of Basel when still only in his mid-twenties…”

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Aristotle was the master of virtues. If you like our films, take a look at our shop (we ship worldwide):

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“Aristotle was born around 384 BC in the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia, where his father was the royal doctor. He grew up to be arguably the most influential philosopher ever, with modest nicknames like ‘the master’, and simply ‘the philosopher’. One of his big jobs was tutoring Alexander the Great, who soon after went out and conquered the known world...”

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Now that we’ve left behind the philosophy of religion, it’s time to start exploring what other ways might exist to find meaning in the world. Today we explore essentialism and its response: existentialism. We’ll also learn about Jean-Paul Sartre and his ideas about how to find meaning in a meaningless world.

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Today we are moving on from the existence of God to look at the philosophical debate surrounding the traditional divine attributes - omnipotence, omniscience, omnitemporality, and omnibenevolence. We are exploring the puzzles that these attributes create as well as some possible solutions to those puzzles, from Aquinas’ ideas of analogical predication, to the work of Eleanor Stump.

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From a distance philosophy seems weird, irrelevant, boring - yet also intriguing. SUBSCRIBE to our channel for new films every week:
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What does Psychology mean? Where does it come from? Hank gives you a 10 minute intro to one of the more tricky sciences and talks about some of the big names in the development of the field. Welcome to Crash Course Psychology!!!

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In which John Green teaches you about World War II, aka The Great Patriotic War, aka The Big One. So how did this war happen? And what does it mean? We've all learned the facts about World War II many times over, thanks to repeated classroom coverage, the History channel, and your grandfather (or maybe great-grandfather) showing you that Nazi bayonet he used to keep in his sock drawer and telling you a bunch of age-inappropriate stories about his harrowing war experiences. So, why did the Axis powers think forceful expansion was a good idea? (they were hungry). So why did this thing shake out in favor of the Allies? HInt: it has to do with the fact that it was a world war. Germany and Japan made some pretty serious strategic errors, such as invading Russia and attacking the United States, and those errors meant that pretty much the whole world was against them. So, find out how this worldwide alliance came together to stop the Axis expansion. All this, plus Canada finally gets the respectful treatment it deserves. Oh, and a warning: there are a few graphic images in this episode. Sensitive viewers may want to use caution, especially around the 9:15 mark.

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We continue our look at philosophical reasoning by introducing two more types: induction and abduction. Hank explains their strengths and weaknesses, as well as counterarguments and the Socratic method.

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Last week we introduced the idea of socialization and today we’re talking a little more about how it works, including an introduction to five main types of socialization. We’ll explore anticipatory socialization from your family, the “hidden curriculum” in schools, peer groups, the role of media in socialization, and we’ll discuss total institutions and how they can act as a form of re-socialization.

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References:

Coleman, James S. 1961. The Adolescent Society: The Social Life of the Teenager and Its Impact on Education. NY: The Free Press

Hill, David, et al. Media and young minds. Pediatrics (2016): e20162591.

Vittrup, Brigitte, and George W. Holden. Exploring the impact of educational television and parent–child discussions on children's racial attitudes. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 11.1 (2011): 82-104.

Kearney, Melissa S., and Phillip B. Levine. Media influences on social outcomes: The impact of MTV's 16 and pregnant on teen childbearing. The American Economic Review 105.12 (2015): 3597-3632.

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This week on Crash Course Big History, Emily is talking about process of human evolution, and the knack for innovation that has allowed humans to become so dominant on the Earth. Human innovation, and the ability to build on those innovations generation after generation is what makes humans different than other animals. Collective learning is enabled by our highly evolved and efficient ability to communicate with each other and pass on information. With great power, of course, comes great responsibility, and how we use this powerful tool has kind of a mixed track record.

For more information, visit the Big History Project

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Mark, Les Aker, Bob Kunz, mark austin, William McGraw, Jeffrey Thompson, Ruth Perez, Jason A Saslow, Shawn Arnold, Eric Prestemon, Malcolm Callis, Steve Marshall, Advait Shinde, Rachel Bright, Khaled El Shalakany, Sam Hickman, Ian Dundore, Asif Ahmed, Tim Curwick, Ken Penttinen, Dominic Dos Santos, Caleb Weeks, Frantic Gonzalez, Kathrin Janßen, Nathan Taylor, Yana Leonor, Andrei Krishkevich, Brian Thomas Gossett, Chris Peters, Kathy & Tim Philip, Mayumi Maeda, Eric Kitchen, SR Foxley, Tom Trval, Andrea Bareis, Moritz Schmidt, Jessica Wode, Daniel Baulig, Jirat
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Where do you start with philosophy? What are the good books to start with? These are questions that Em, our resident Student Philosopher, gets asked all the time - and so here recommends four titles that she liked. Please subscribe here:
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Em's book choices are:
The Conquest of Happiness, Bertrand Russell
The Consolations of Philosophy, Alain de Botton
The Art of Loving, Erich Fromm
The Unbearable Lightness of Being, Milan Kundera

A major depressive disorder — usually just called “depression” — is different than the “blues”. Someone experiencing depression is grappling with feelings of severe despair over an extended period of time. Almost every aspect of their life can be affected, including their emotions, physical health, relationships and work. For people with depression, it does not feel like there is a “light at the end of the tunnel” — there is just a long, dark tunnel.

Understanding depression is a good step towards helping friends or family members who are having depression. Depression isn't as simple as feeling sad, its much more.

It’s more than just getting bad grades.

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Last week we introduced Thomas Aquinas’s four cosmological arguments for the existence of god; today we introduce his fifth argument: the teleological argument, and the ensuing dialogue it initiated.

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Algorithms are the sets of steps necessary to complete computation - they are at the heart of what our devices actually do. And this isn’t a new concept. Since the development of math itself algorithms have been needed to help us complete tasks more efficiently, but today we’re going to take a look a couple modern computing problems like sorting and graph search, and show how we’ve made them more efficient so you can more easily find cheap airfare or map directions to Winterfell... or like a restaurant or something.

Ps. Have you had the chance to play the Grace Hopper game we made in episode 12. Check it out here!

CORRECTION:
In the pseudocode for selection sort at 3:09, this line:
swap array items at index and smallest
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swap array items at i and smallest

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This week Hank introduces skepticism, exploring everything from the nature of reality through the eyes of a 17th century philosopher and, of course, The Matrix.

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Our unit on the philosophy of religion and the existence of god continues with Thomas Aquinas. Today, we consider his first four arguments: the cosmological arguments.

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The early 1900s was an amazing time for Western science, as Albert Einstein was developing his theories of relativity and psychology was born, as Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis took over the scientific mainstream. Karl Popper observed these developments firsthand and came to draw a distinction between what he referred to as science and pseudoscience, which might best be summarized as science disconfirms, while pseudoscience confirms. While the way we describe these disciplines has changed in the intervening years, Popper’s ideas speak to the heart of how we arrive at knowledge.

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Crash Course World History is now available on DVD! Visit to buy a set for your home or classroom.

In which John Green teaches you about capitalism and socialism in a way that is sure to please commenters from both sides of the debate. Learn how capitalism arose from the industrial revolution, and then gave rise to socialism. Learn about how we got from the British East India Company to iPhones and consumer culture in just a couple of hundred years. Stops along the way include the rise of industrial capitalism, mass production, disgruntled workers, Karl Marx, and the Socialist Beard. The socialist reactions to the ills of capitalism are covered as well, and John discusses some of the ideas of Karl Marx, and how they've been implemented or ignored in various socialist states. Plus, there are robots!

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The Relentless Revolution by Joyce Appelby:

The Marx-Engels Reader:

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4 Crime and Mystery Riddles That Test Your Logic. These are popular and logical 4 crime and mystery riddles that test your logic. Please try this once.

Do we really have free will? Today Hank explores possible answers to that question, explaining theories like libertarian free will and it’s counterpoint, hard determinism.

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2,000 Years of Chinese History! The Mandate of Heaven and Confucius:
Crash Course World History #7

In which John introduces you to quite a lot of Chinese history by
discussing the complicated relationship between the Confucian scholars
who wrote Chinese history and the emperors (and empress) who made it.
Included is a brief introduction to all the dynasties in Chinese
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China, and how China became the first modern state.

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Introductie in westerse wijsbegeerte.

Wat is filosofie eigenlijk?
Een inleiding tot de westerse filosofie.
Ter sprake komen:
Deel 1: het ontstaan van de filosofie
Deel 2: waarheid
Intermezzo: filosofische ervaringen
Deel 3: betekenis
Muziek en tekst:
René van Delft

Filosofie is bespiegeling.
Zij reflecteert op de bronnen van haar denken.
Er zijn veel verschijningsvormen van:
Filosofie kan simpel zijn of moeilijk.
Zij kan droog en saai of juist leuk en opwindend zijn.
Filosofie is een gesprek. Vooral met jezelf.

Deel 1: ontstaansgeschiedenis van de filosofie

Duizenden jaren lang werd de wereld van onze gedachten in beslag genomen door godsdienst, mythologie en beeldende kunst.
Tussen 600 en 300 voor Christus ontstonden filosofie en een begin van wetenschap.
Hoe kon dat?
Als je maar één verhaal kent van hoe alles in elkaar zit, heb je amper reden om hieraan te twijfelen.
Toen in het oude Griekenland de handel over zee groeide,
kregen de mensen contact met andere volkeren.

Hierdoor beseften zij dat je anders naar de wereld kan kijken dan zij gewend waren.

Zij gingen erover nadenken of wat zij altijd hadden aangenomen wel klopte.
Filosofie komt dus (waarschijnlijk) voort uit twijfel.

Gedurende de volgende 2500 jaar,
werd steeds nagedacht of je nog beter kon nadenken.
Allerlei theorieën werden gemaakt en verworpen.
Theorieën over god(en),
over de ziel,
en over de onderdelen en krachten van de natuur.
Ze vonden drie rijk geschakeerde bronnen van het denken:
rationaliteit (redeneren),
gezaghebbende teksten (lezen),
en ervaringen of observaties (zien).

Deel 2: waarheid
Tegenwoordig zeggen veel mensen dat waarheid niet bestaat.
Maar natuurlijk vinden ze dat veel dingen die ze zeggen wel waar zijn.
Dus waarschijnlijk bedoelen ze dat in elke discussie,
de juiste opvatting samenhangt met het gezichtspunt dat je inneemt.
Wat inderdaad een ware en waardevolle gedachte is.
Vrijwel altijd geldt (met uitzondering van bijvoorbeeld kunst en grappen):
je hebt meer aan een ware uitspraak dan aan een onware.
De filosoof kijkt of ideeën een degelijke grond hebben.
Hoe werken die verschillende bronnen van onze meningen nu eigenlijk?
Hoe beïnvloeden zij elkaar?

Ons redeneren is de zaklamp waarmee we onze boeken kiezen en lezen.
Wat we denken te lezen, kleurt wat onze ogen ons vertellen.
Wat we denken te zien, is de basis voor ons redeneren.

Zijn wij slachtoffers van deze werkingen?
Of zijn dit juist fantastische gaven?

Intermezzo: filosofische ervaringen
Zoeken naar de waarheid, dat kan nogal kil en abstract klinken.
Maar filosofie komt voort uit een aantal intense ervaringen:
• Het besef dat we ons kunnen vergissen.
• De (inwendige) discussies die laten zien dat je steeds vanzelfsprekendheden ter discussie kunt stellen.
• Het inzicht dat ons perspectief altijd beperkt is.
• De verwondering over het feit dat de werkelijkheid is wat zij is.
Filosofie is sceptische en gepassioneerde nieuwsgierigheid.

Deel 3: betekenis
Wat is de betekenis (oftewel: de zin, het nut, de rol, de clou, de inhoud) van:
Liefde, de ander, geld, emoties, woorden, recht, dood, leven, ikzelf, wat dan ook?

Wat betekenisvol is, verdient aandacht.
En wat je aandacht geeft, groeit in betekenis.
De betekenis van iets zien, is onder andere:
zien hoe het in zijn omgeving past.
Hoe het versmelt of contrasteert met de 'context'.

De filosoof zal altijd haastige conclusies vermijden.
Maar soms zie je toch een glimp van hoe alle dingen zouden kunnen samenhangen.
Iedereen kan zijn eigen aannames ter discussie stellen.
In die zin kan iedereen een filosoof zijn.

Copyrights van de meeste plaatjes: Creative Commons, Flickr
Overig: Marga den Bok, Henk den Bok, René van Delft
Meer filosofie:
renevandelft.nl

10 philosophers you need to know if you want to engage with the world today - we're talking politics, race, trans rights, ethics metaphysics, art, culture, and more!

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Recommended Reading:
Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception
Achille Mbembe, Necropolitics
Falguni Sheth, Toward A Political Philosophy of Race
Berys Gaut, The Philosophy of Creativity,
Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex
bell hooks, Ain't I A Woman, Feminism is For Everybody, and Understanding Patriarchy
Davis Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds
Karl Marx, Das Kapital
Elizabeth Ashford, The Nature of our Duties Towards the Chronically Poor
Talia Bettcher, Transsexualism and Brain Sex
Jeff McMahan, The Ethics of Killing

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In which John compares and contrasts Greek civilization and the Persian Empire. Of course we're glad that Greek civilization spawned modern western civilization, right? Maybe not. From Socrates and Plato to Darius and Xerxes, John explains two of the great powers of the ancient world, all WITHOUT the use of footage from 300.

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Plato:

Plays of Aristophanes:

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We used to think that the human brain was a lot like a computer; using logic to figure out complicated problems. It turns out, it's a lot more complex and, well, weird than that. In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank discusses thinking & communication, solving problems, creating problems, and a few ideas about what our brains are doing up there.

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Table of Contents

Thinking & Communicating 01:39:16
Solving Problems 03:21:03
Creating Problems 05:46:06

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So you may have heard of Moore's Law and while it isn't truly a law it has pretty closely estimated a trend we've seen in the advancement of computing technologies. Moore's Law states that we'll see approximately a 2x increase in transistors in the same space every two years, and while this may not be true for much longer, it has dictated the advancements we've seen since the introduction of transistors in the mid 1950s. So today we're going to talk about those improvements in hardware that made this possible - starting with the third generation of computing and integrated circuits (or ICs) and printed circuit boards (or PCBs). But as these technologies advanced a newer manufacturing process would bring us to the nanoscale manufacturing we have today - photolithography.

Check out Veritasium's video: How Does a Transistor Work?


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Philosophy of FINAL FANTASY ►

Welcome to a special edition of 8-Bit Philosophy, where classic video games introduce famous thinkers, problems, and concepts with quotes, teachings, and more. This week - The Philosophy of Fallout.

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Written by: Alec Opperman
Created & Directed by: Jared Bauer
Producer: Jacob Salamon
Co-Producer: Todd Mendeloff
Edited by: Yesel Manrique
Assistant Editor: MB McClain
Assistant Editor: Ben Peterson
Researcher: Ben Peterson
Narrated by: Jared Bauer


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There are many benefits of studying philosophy. Knowing about some of the greatest philosophers of all time can help you understand ideas and learn how to use critical thinking skills when studying the world around you. Here are 46 of some of the best philosophers throughout the centuries and their major contributions to this field of study.

1. Confucius
2. Parmenides
3. Mozi
4. Socrates
5. Plato
6 .Aristotle
7. Epicurus
8. Origen
9. Saint Augustine of Hippo
10. Avicenna
11. Thomas Aquinas
12. Niccolo Machiavelli
13. John Calvin
14. Francis Bacon
15. Thomas Hobbes
16. René Descartes
17. Blaise Pascal
18. John Locke
19. Gottfried Leibniz
20. Voltaire
21. David Hume
22. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
23. Adam Smith
24. Immanuel Kant
25. Thomas Paine
26. Mary Wollstonecraft
27. Auguste Comte
28. John Stuart Mill
29. Soren Kierkegaard
30. Henry David Thoreau
31. Karl Marx
32. Leo Tolstoy
33. William James
34. Friedrich Nietzsche
35. John Dewey
36. Emma Goldman
37. Bertrand Russell
38. Albert Schweitzer
39. Ludwig Wittgenstein
40. C. S. Lewis
41. Erich Fromm
42. Jean-Paul Sartre
43. Hannah Arendt
44. Simone de Beauvoir
45. Albert Camus
46.Michel Foucault

To learn more about these great philosophers, visit our website at

In which John Green examines the French Revolution, and gets into how and why it differed from the American Revolution. Was it the serial authoritarian regimes? The guillotine? The Reign of Terror? All of this and more contributed to the French Revolution not being quite as revolutionary as it could have been. France endured multiple constitutions, the heads of heads of state literally rolled, and then they ended up with a megalomaniacal little emperor by the name of Napoleon. But how did all of this change the world, and how did it lead to other, more successful revolutions around the world? Watch this video and find out. Spoiler alert: Marie Antoinette never said, Let them eat cake. Sorry.

Crash Course World History is now available on DVD!

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Thermidor (which is this month) is Revolutions month on Crash Course!

The American Revolution:

Coming soon:

#30 - Haitian Revolution
#31 - Latin American Revolutions
#32 - Industrial Revolution

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What exactly is Consciousness? Well... that's kind of a gray area. In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank gives you the basic ideas of what Consciousness is, how our attention works, and why we shouldn't text and drive... ever... no, really, NEVER!
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Table of Contents

Defining Consciousness 00:00:00
Neuroimaging 02:16:01
Dual Processing 03:45:18
Selective Attention 04:22:16
Selective Inattention 05:46:21
Change Blindness 06:12:08
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Welcome to our special Wisecrack Edition on The Philosophy of Rick and Morty. Get deep-dive insights into the philosophical underpinnings of one of the best shows on television.

Huge thanks to LAZERHAWK for providing the music in this episode! Check 'em out! ►►

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Written by: Alec Opperman
Created & Directed by: Jared Bauer
Music by: Lazerhawk (
Edited by: Ryan Hailey
Motion Graphics by: Drew Levin
Produced by: Jacob Salamon
Narrated by: Jared Bauer

© 2015 Wisecrack, Inc.

This week on Crash Course Mythology, Mike is teaching you about the archetypes that are often associated with male divinities. We’re going to talk about Fathers & Sons, Kings & Judges, Saviors & Sages, Shamans, Tricksters, and Lords of Destruction. Along the way, we’ll look at the story of Hwaning, Hwanung, and Dangun from the Korean peninsula, and we’ll learn about Arjuna and all the help he got from Krishna. We’ll also touch on a ton of other myths from around the world. These things play out this way all the time, man.

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Our Sources:
Leonard & McClure - Myth and Knowing
William Doty - Myth: A Handbook:


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Mark, Les Aker, Bob Kunz, mark austin, William McGraw, Jeffrey Thompson, Ruth Perez, Jason A Saslow, Shawn Arnold, Eric Prestemon, Malcolm Callis, Steve Marshall, Advait Shinde, Rachel Bright, Khaled El Shalakany, Sam Hickman, Ian Dundore, Asif Ahmed, Tim Curwick, Ken Penttinen, Dominic Dos Santos, Caleb Weeks, Frantic Gonzalez, Kathrin Janßen, Nathan Taylor, Yana Leonor, Andrei Krishkevich, Brian Thomas Gossett, Chris Peters, Kathy & Tim Philip, Mayumi Maeda, Eric Kitchen, SR Foxley, Tom Trval, Andrea Bareis, Moritz Schmidt, Jessica Wode, Daniel Baulig, Jirat
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Just a collection of gems I found while reading philosophy. Let me know if you know some for the next installment.
This was all vielelDeen's idea.

What makes you… you? How did you get to be that way? Today we’re talking about social development, starting with the role of nature and nurture in influencing a person’s development. We’ll discuss socialization, the importance of care & human interaction, as well as theories of development from a range of theorists.

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Les Aker, Bob Kunz, mark austin, William McGraw, Jeffrey Thompson, Ruth Perez, Jason A Saslow, Shawn Arnold, Eric Prestemon, Malcolm Callis, Steve Marshall, Advait Shinde, Rachel Bright, Khaled El Shalakany, Sam Hickman, Ian Dundore, Asif Ahmed, Tim Curwick, Ken Penttinen, Dominic Dos Santos, Caleb Weeks, Frantic Gonzalez, Kathrin Janßen, Nathan Taylor, Yana Leonor, Andrei Krishkevich, Brian Thomas Gossett, Chris Peters, Kathy & Tim Philip, Mayumi Maeda, Eric Kitchen, SR Foxley, Tom Trval, Andrea Bareis, Moritz Schmidt, Jessica Wode, Daniel Baulig, Jirat
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Today on Crash Course Astronomy, Phil dives into some very dark matters. The stuff we can actually observe in the universe isn’t all there is. Galaxies and other large structures in the universe are created and shifted by a force we detect mostly indirectly, by observing its impact: DARK MATTER.

Crash Course Astronomy Poster:

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Table of Contents
Normal and Dark Matter 0:55
Dark Matter Only Interacts With Normal Matter Through Gravity 4:27
Dark Matter Bends Light 5:08

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PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Virtual tour in our Solar System (Artist's impression) [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Hubblecast 11: A grand design in a galactic festoon [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Hubble's High-Definition Panoramic View of the Andromeda Galaxy [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and L.C. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, and R. Gendler]
Panning and zooming on Abell 1689 [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
All-sky image of molecular gas and three molecular cloud complexes seen by Planck [credit: ESA/Planck Collaboration]
How to Become a Star [credit: ESO]
Neutron star illustrated [credit: NASA, Casey Reed - Penn State University]
Alone in Space - Astronomers Find New Kind of Planet [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Black hole deforms space [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Gravitational lensing in action [credit: NASA, ESA & L. Calçada]
Bullet Cluster [credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/ M.Markevitch et al.; Lensing Map: NASA/STScI; ESO WFI; Magellan/U.Arizona/ D.Clowe et al. Optical: NASA/STScI; Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe et al.]
Bullet Cluster, Optical [credit: NASA/STScI; Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe et al.]
Bullet Cluster, X-ray [credit: NASA/CXC/CfA/ M.Markevitch et al.]
The Bullet Cluster [credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/M.Markevitch, Optical and lensing map: NASA/STScI, Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe, Lensing map: ESO WFI]
Pandora’s Cluster — Clash of the Titans [credit: NASA]
Hubble Refines Distance to Pleiades Star Cluster [credit: NASA, ESA and AURA/Caltech]
Stephan’s Quintet [credit: Hubble Legacy Archive, ESA, NASA]
Virgo Cluster Galaxies [credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo]
Illustration of the distribution dark matter in the Universe [credit: NASA, ESA, and E. Hallman (University of Colorado, Boulder)]

Today we are talking about death, looking at philosophical approaches from Socrates, Epicurus, and Zhuangzi. We will consider whether it’s logical to fear your own death, or the deaths of your loved ones. Hank also discusses Thomas Nagel, death, and Fear of Missing Out.

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What is culture? How do we define it and how does it change? We’ll explore different categories of culture, like low culture, high culture, and sub-cultures. We'll also revisit our founding theories to consider both a structural functionalist and a conflict theory perspective on what cultures mean for society.

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Les Aker, Bob Kunz, Mark Austin, William McGraw, Jeffrey Thompson, Ruth Perez, Jason A Saslow, Eric Prestemon, Malcolm Callis, Steve Marshall, Advait Shinde, Rachel Bright, Ian Dundore, Tim Curwick, Ken Penttinen, Dominic Dos Santos, Caleb Weeks, Frantic Gonzalez, Kathrin Janßen, Nathan Taylor, Yana Leonor, Andrei Krishkevich, Brian Thomas Gossett, Chris Peters, Kathy & Tim Philip, Mayumi Maeda, Eric Kitchen, SR Foxley, Tom Trval, Andrea Bareis, Moritz Schmidt, Jessica Wode, Daniel Baulig, Jirat
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Today we’re going to talk about on how we organize the data we use on our devices. You might remember last episode we walked through some sorting algorithms, but skipped over how the information actually got there in the first place! And it is this ability to store and access information in a structured and meaningful way that is crucial to programming. From strings, pointers, and nodes, to heaps, trees, and stacks get ready for an ARRAY of new terminology and concepts.

Ps. Have you had the chance to play the Grace Hopper game we made in episode 12. Check it out here!

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On today’s episode...CATS. Also: Hank talks about some philosophy stuff, like a few of the key concepts philosophers use when discussing belief and knowledge, such as what defines an assertion and a proposition, and that belief is a kind of propositional attitude. Hank also discusses forms of justification and the traditional definition of knowledge, which Edmund Gettier just totally messed with, using his Gettier cases.

Many thanks to Index the cat for his patience in the filming of this episode.

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PBS Digital Studios wants to get to know you better! If you have 10 minutes, we'd really appreciate it AND you'll be entered for a chance to win a t-shirt!

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Images and video via VideoBlocks or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0:
“Ancient Aliens” copyright 2010 The History Channel
Classroom image via Public Domain Images

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Today Hank gains insight from that most philosophical of figures...Leonardo DiCaprio. In this episode, we’re talking about the process of philosophical discovery and questioning the relationship between appearance and reality by taking a look at Plato’s famous Myth of the Cave. All with a little help from our good pal Leo.

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Inception stills copyright 2010 Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. and Legendary Pictures

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